2012 - 6 Issue

Recommended Procedures

Guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of patients with retinal vein occlusion

Jiří Řehák ORCID
Jan Studnička ORCID

Full Text links

DOI:

Published in Czech and Slovak Ophtalmology: 2012 - 6

Published on website: 10.12.2012

Keywords:

Summary

Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) is defined as a retinal vascular disorder which is typically manifested by the overlapping, dilation and tortuosity of the retinal veins, predominantly by means of intraretinal haemorrhages and intraretinal edema, retinal ischemia including cotton wool spots, hard exudates and macular edema [1-8]. As soon as an area of the fovea is afflicted by macular edema, a deterioration of central visual acuity (VA) takes place, which leads to progressive and sometimes acute, painless loss of sight.

References

  1. Treatment of hemispheric vein occlusion is similar to treatment of retinal vein occlusion. In particular macular edema as a consequence of hemispheric vein occlusion is treated in a similar manner as with BRVO.
  2. The risk of rubeosis in ischemic occlusion of the hemicentral vein is greater than in the case of BRVO, but smaller than in CRVO. Examination for neovascularisation of the anterior segment, including gonioscopy, is therefore indicated. Treatment of neovascularisation of the BRVO Determination of basic systemic disorder (arterial hypertension, cardiovascular disorder, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, thrombophilia) Identification of location of occlusion Assessment of extent of peripheral and macular ischemia (according to fluorescent angiography) Identification of complications threatening sight such as macular edema, neovascularisation (ON disc, retina, iris, chamber angle) Observation of VA, biomicroscopy of fundus, OCT Perfused periphery Non-perfused periphery Normal VA or deterioration of VA to 6/12 inclusive Monitor during first three months once per month, then once per two months for a period of 1 year. If macrocystic ME is shown on OCT, treatment is indicated as with sympathe
  3. Hayreh SS, Klugman MR, Beri M, Kimura AE, Podhajsky P: Di- fferentiation of ischemic from non-ischemic central retinal vein occlusion during the early acute phase. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1990; 228: 201–217.
  4. Hayreh SS: Retinal vein occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol 1994; 42: 109–132.
  5. Coscas G, Dhermy P: Occlusions veineuses rétiniennes. Paris, Masson, 1978, pp 283–346.
  6. Coscas G, Gaudric A: Natural course ofnonaphakic cystoid ma- cular edema. Surv Ophthalmol 1984; 28(suppl):471–484.
  7. CONCLUSION The guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of patients with retinal vein occlusion contain the procedures for care of patients with closure of retinal veins, which are recommended by the Czech Vitreoretinal Society and approved by the Czech Ophthalmological Society.
  8. Central Vein Occlusion Study Group: A randomized clinical trial of early panretinal photo- coagulation for ischemic central vein occlusion: the Central Vein Occlusion Study Group N Re- port. Ophthalmology 1995; 102: 1434–1444.
  9. Frangieh GT, Green WR, Barra- quer-Somers E, Finkelstein D: Histopathologic study of nine branch retinal vein occlusions. Arch Ophthalmol 1982; 100: 1132–1140.
  10. Duker JS, Brown GC: Anterior location of the crossing artery in branch retinal vein obstruction. Arch Ophthalmol 1989; 107: 998–1000.
  11. Zhao J, Sastry SM, Sperduto RD, Chew EY, Remaley NA: Ar- teriovenous crossing patterns in branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 1993; 100: 423– 428.
  12. Christoffersen NL, Larsen M: Pathophysiology and hemodynamics of branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 1999; 106:2054–2062.
  13. Rogers S, McIntosh RL, Cheung N, Lim L, Wang JJ, Mitchell P, Kowalski JW, Nguyen H, Wong TY, International Eye Disease consortium: The prevalence of retinal vein occlusion: pooled data from population studies from the United States, Europe, Asia, and Australia. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 313–319.
  14. Green WR, Chan CC, Hutchins GM, Terry JM: Central retinal vein occlusion: a prospective histopathologic study of 29 eyes in 28 cases. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1981; 79:371–422.
  15. Green WR: Retina; in Spencer WH (ed): Ophthalmic Pathology. An Atlas and Textbook, ed 3. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1985, p 589.
  16. Janssen MC, den Heijer M, Cruysberg JR, Wollersheim H, Bredie SJ: Retinal vein occlusion: a form of venous thrombosis or a complication of atherosclerosis? A metaanalysis of thrombophilic factors. Thromb Haemost 2005; 93: 1021–1026.
  17. Central Retinal Vein Occlusion Study Group: Natural history and clinical management of central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 1997; 115: 486–491.
  18. Jonas J, Paques M, Monés J, Glacet-Bernard A, Coscas G: Retinal vein occlusions. Dev Ophthalmol 2010; 47: 111–135.
  19. Fejfar, Z., Přerovský, I.: Patofyziologie krevního oběhu. Avicenum, Praha, 1980: 359-386.
  20. Řehák J, Rehák M et al.: Venózní okluze sítnice, Grada publishing, 2011.
  21. Haymore JG, Mejico LJ: Retinal vascular occlusion syndromes. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2009; 49: 63–79.
  22. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman M, Podhajsky P: Incidence of various types of retinal vein occlusion and their recurrence and demographic characteristics. Am J Ophthalmol 1994; 117: 429–441.
  23. Williamson TH: Central retinal vein occlusion: what’s the story? Br J Ophthalmol 1977;81: 698– 704.
  24. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B, McCarthy MJ, Podhajsky P: Systemic diseases associated with various types of retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 131: 61–77.
  25. Recchia FM, Brown GC: Systemic disorders associated with retinal vascular occlusion. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2000; 11: 462– 467.
  26. Yau JW, Lee P, Wong TY, Best J, Jenkins A: Retinal vein occlusion: an approach to diagnosis, systemic risk factors and management. Intern Med J 2008; 38: 904–910.
  27. Dodson PM, Kritzinger EE: Underlying medical conditions in young patients and ethnic differences in retinal vein occlusion. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK 1985; 104: 114–119.
  28. Dodson PM, Kritzinger EE: Medical cardiovascular treatment trials: relevant to medical ophthalmology in 1997 ? Eye (Lond) 1997; 11(pt 1):3–11.
  29. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group: Risk factors for central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 1996; 114: 545–554.
  30. di Capua M, Coppola A, Albisinni R, Tufano A, Guida A, di Minno MN, Cirillo F, Loffredo M, Cerbone AM: Cardiovascular risk factors and outcome in patients with retinal vein occlusion. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2010; 30: 16–22.
  31. Dodson PM, Galton DJ, Hamilton AM, Blach RK: Retinal vein occlusion and the prevalence of lipoprotein abnormalities. Br J Ophthalmol 1982; 66: 161–164.
  32. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group: Risk factors for branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 1993; 116: 286–296.
  33. Dodson PM, Kritzinger EE, Clough CG: Diabetes mellitus and retinal vein occlusion in patients of Asian, West Indian and White European origin. Eye (Lond) 1992; 6: 66–68.
  34. Lim LL, Cheung N, Wang JJ, Islam FM, Mitchell P, Saw SM, Aung T, Wong TY: Prevalence and risk factors of retinal vein occlusion in an Asian population. Br J Ophthalmol 2008; 92: 1316– 1319.
  35. O’Mahoney PR, Wong DT, Ray JG: Retinal vein occlusion and traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis. Arch Ophthalmol 2008; 126: 692–699.
  36. Prisco D, Marcucci R, Bertini L, Gori AM: Cardiovascular and thrombophilic risk factors for central retinal vein occlusion. Eur J Intern Med 2002; 13: 163–169.
  37. Salaun N, Delyfer MN, Rougier MB, Korobelnik JF: Evaluation du bilan étiologique des occlusions veineuses rétiniennes du sujet Čgé de moins de 60 ans. J Fr Ophthalmol 2007; 20: 918–923.
  38. Shrestha RK, Shrestha JK, Koirala S, Shah DN: Association of systemic diseases with retinal vein occlusive disease. JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc 2006; 45: 244–248.
  39. Sodi A, Giambene B, Marcucci R, Sofi F, Fedi S, Abbate R, Prisco D, Menchini U: Atherosclerotic and thrombophilic risk factors in patients with ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2010, Epub ahead of print.
  40. Wang S, Xu L, Jonas JB, Wong TY, Cui T, Li Y, Wang YX, You QS, Yang H, Sun C: Major eye diseases and risk factors associated with systemic hypertension in an adult Chinese population: the Beijing Eye Study. Ophthalmology 2009; 116: 2373–2380.
  41. Yasuda M, Kiyohara Y, Arakawa S, Hata Y, Yonemoto K, Doi Y, Iida M, Ishibashi T: Prevalence and systemic risk factors for retinal vein occlusion in a general Japanese population: the Hisayama study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: 3205–3209.
  42. Elman MJ, Bhatt AK, Quinlan PM, Enger C: The risk for systemic vascular diseases and mortality in patients with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 1990; 97: 1543-1548.
  43. Mitchell P, Smith W, Chang A: Prevalence and associations of retinal vein occlusion in Australia: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 1996; 114: 1243–1247.
  44. Rath EZ, Frank RN, Shin DH, Kim C: Risk factors for retinal vein occlusions: a case-control study. Ophthalmology 1992; 99: 509-514.
  45. Sofi F, Marcucci R, Fedi S, Giambene B, Sodi A, Menchini U, Gensini GF, Abbate R, Prisco D: High lipoprotein(a) levels are associated with an increased risk of retinal vein occlusion. Atherosclerosis 2010; 210: 278–281.
  46. Stojakovic T, Scharnagl H, März W, Winkelmann BR, Boehm BO, Schmut O: Low density lipoprotein triglycerides and lipoprotein (a) are risk factors for retinal vascular occlusion. Clin Chim Acta 2007; 382: 77–81.
  47. Turello M, Pasca S, Daminato R, dello Russo P, Giacomello R, Venturelli U, Barillari G: Retinal vein occlusion: evaluation of ‘classic’ and ‘emerging’ risk factors and treatment. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2010; 29: 459–464.
  48. Rehak M, Krcova V, Slavik L, Fric E, Langova K, Ulehlova J, Rehak J: The role of thrombophilia in patients with retinal vein occlusion and no systemic risk factors. Can J Ophthalmol 2010; 45: 171–175.
  49. Kuhli-Hattenbach C, Scharrer I, Lüchtenberg M, Hattenbach LO: Coagulation disorders and the risk of retinal vein occlusion. Thromb Haemost 2010; 103: 299–305.
  50. Lahey JM, Tunć M, Kearney J, Modlinski B, Koo H, Johnson RN, Tanaka S: Laboratory evaluation of hypercoagulable states in patients with central retinal vein occlusion who are less than 56 years of age. Ophthalmology 2002; 109: 126–131.
  51. Larsson J, Hillarp A, Ólafsdóttir E, Bauer B: Activated protein C resistance and anticoagulant proteins in young adults with central retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1999; 77: 634– 637.
  52. Fegan CD: Central retinal vein occlusion and thrombophilia. Eye (Lond) 2002; 16: 98–106.
  53. Bertram B, Remky A, Arend O, Wolf S, Reim M: Protein C, protein S, and antithrombin III in acute ocular occlusive diseases. Ger J Ophthalmol 1995; 4: 332–335.
  54. Ciardella AP, Yannuzzi LA, Freund KB, DiMichele D, Nejat M, de Rosa JT, Daly JR, Sisco L: Factor V Leiden, activated protein C resistance, and retinal vein occlusion. Retina 1998; 18: 308–315.
  55. Cruciani F, Moramarco A, Curto T, Labate A, Recupero V, Conti L, Gandolfo GM, Balacco Gabrieli C: MTHFR C677T mutation, factor II G20210A mutation and factor V Leiden as risk factors for youth retinal vein occlusion. Clin Ter 2003; 154: 299–303.
  56. Glacet-Bernard A, les Jardins GL, Lasry S, Coscas G, Soubrane G, Souied E, Housset B: Obstructive sleep apnea among patients with retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 2010; 128: 1533–1538.
  57. Quinlan PM, Elman MJ, Bhatt AK, Mardesich P, Enger C: The natural course of central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990; 100: 118-123.
  58. McIntosh RL, Rogers SL, Lim L, Cheung N, Wang JJ, Mitchell P, Kowalski JW, Nguyen HP, Wong TY: Natural history of central retinal vein occlusion: an evidence- -based systematic review. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 1094–1123.
  59. Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, Oden NL, Ip MS, Blodi BA, Jumper JM, Figueroa M, SCORE Study Investigator Group: SCORE Study report 1: baseline associations between central retinal thickness and visual acuity in patients with retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2009; 116: 504-512.
  60. Haller JA, Bandello F, Belfort R Jr, Blumenkranz MS, Gillies M, Heier J, Loewenstein A, Yoon YH, Jacques ML, Jiao J, Li XY, Whitcup SM: OZURDEX GENEVA Study Group: randomized, sham-controlled trial of dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 1134 –1146.
  61. Chen JC, Klein ML, Watzke RC et al.: Natural course of perfused CRVO. Can. J. Opthalmol. 1995, 30, 2124.
  62. Ramezani A, Entezari M, Moradian S, Tabatabaei H, Kadkhodaei S: Intravitreal triamcinolone for acute central retinal vein occlusion: a randomized clinical trial. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthlamol 2006; 244: 1601–1606.
  63. Tewari HK, Lemtor MT, Azad RV, Verma L: Argon laser photocoagulation in acute central retinal vein occlusion. Afro-Asian J Ophthalmol 1995; 13: 88–91.
  64. Cugati S, Wang JJ, Rochtchina E, Mitchell P: Ten-year incidence of retinal vein occlusion in an older population: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 2006; 124: 726–732.
  65. Fong ACO, Shatz H: Central retinal vein occlusion in young adults. Surv Ophthalmol 1993; 37: 393–417.
  66. Orth DH, Patz A: Retinal branch vein occlusion. Surv Ophthalmol 1978; 22: 357–376.
  67. Walters RF, Spalton DJ: Central retinal vein occlusion in people aged 40 years or less: a review of 17 patients. Br J Ophthalmol 1990; 74: 30–35.
  68. Rehak J, Dusek L, Chrapek O, Fric E, Rehak M: Initial visual acuity is an important prognostic factor in patients with branch retinal vein occlusion. Opthalmic Res. 2011;45: 204-209.
  69. Rogers SL, McIntosh RL, Lim L, Mitchell P, Cheung N, Kowalski JW, Nguyen HP, Wang JJ, Wong TY: Natural history of branch retinal vein occlusion: an evidence-based systematic review. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 1094–1101e5.
  70. Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group: Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 1984; 98: 271–282.
  71. Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group: Argon laser scatter photocoagulation for prevention of neovascularization and vitreous hemorrhage in branch vein occlusion: a randomized clinical trial. Arch Ophthalmol 1986; 104: 34–41.
  72. Clemett RS, Kohner EM, Hamilton AM: The visual prognosis in retinal branch vein occlusion. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK 1973; 93: 523–535.
  73. Michels RG, Gass JD: The natural course of retinal branch vein obstruction. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol 1974; 78: 166–177.
  74. Shilling JS, Kohner EM: New vessel formation in retinal branch vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol 1976; 60: 810–815.
  75. Shilling JS, Jones CA: Retinal branch vein occlusion: a study of argon laser photocoagulation in the treatment of macular oedema. Br J Ophthalmol 1984; 68: 196–198.
  76. Murakami T, Takagi H, Ohashi H, Kita M, Nishiwaki H, Miyamoto K, Watanabe D, Sakamoto A, Yamaike N, Yoshimura N: Role of posterior vitreous detachment induced by intravitreal tissue plasminogen activator in macular edema with central retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2007; 27: 1031–1037.
  77. Royal College of Ophthalmologists: Interim guidelines for management of retinal vein occlusion: December 2010. 2010.
  78. Řehák J, Chrapek O: Venózní okluze sítnice in Rozsíval P: Trendy soudobé oftalmologie sv. 2, Galén 2005: 73-98
  79. Rehák M, Řehák J, Fric E, Bábková B, Prachařová Z: Warfarin v léčbě kmenové okluze centrální sítnicové vény. 9. Vejdovského olomoucký vědecký den, sborník abstrakt
  80. Hayreh SS: Management of central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthal- mologica 2003; 217: 167–188.
  81. Shroff D, Mehta DK, Arora R, Narula R, Chauhan D: Natural history of macular status in recent-onset branch retinal vein occlusion: an optical coherence tomography study. Int Ophthalmol 2008; 28: 261–268.
  82. Coscas G, Coscas F, Vismara S, Zourdani A, Li Calzi C: Bright hyper-reflective spots and dense zones; in Coscas G (ed): Optical Coherence Tomography in Age- -Related Macular Degeneration. Heidelberg, Springer, 2009, chapt 7, pp 159–167.
  83. Hirota A, Mishima HK, Kiuchi Y: Incidence of retinal vein occlusion at the Glaucoma Clinic of Hiroshima University. Ophthalmologica 1997; 211: 288–291.
  84. Brown DM, Campochiaro PA, Singh RP, Li Z, Gray S, Saroj N, Rundle AC, Rubio RG, Murahashi WY, CRUISE Investigators: Ranibizumab for macular edema following central retinal vein occlusion: six- -month primary end point results of a phase III study. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 1124–1133e1.
  85. Ferrara DC, Koizumi H, Spaide RF: Early bevacizumab treatment of central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 2007; 144: 864–871.
  86. Figueroa MS, Contreras I, Noval S, Arruabarrena C: Results of bevacizumab as the primary treatment for retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol 2010; 94: 1052–1056.
  87. Wroblewski JJ, Wells JA 3rd, Adamis AP, Buggage RR, Cunningham ET Jr, Goldbaum M, Guyer DR, Katz B, Altaweel MM: Pegaptanib in Central Retinal Vein Occlusion Study Group: pegaptanib sodium for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 2009; 127: 374–380.
  88. Kinge B, Stordahl PB, Forsaa V, Fossen K, Haugstad M, Helgesen OH, Seland J, Stene-Johansen I: Efficacy of ranibizumab in patients with macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: results from the sham- -controlled ROCC study. Am J Ophthalmol 2010; 150: 310-314.
  89. Browning DJ, Scott AQ, Peterson CB, Warnock J, Zhang Z: The risk of missing angle neovascularization by omitting screening gonioscopy in acute central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 1998; 105: 776–784.
  90. Beutel J, Peters S, Lüke M, Aisenbrey S, Szurman P, Spitzer MS, Yoeruek E, Bevacizumab Study Group, Grisanti S: Bevacizumab as adjuvant for neovascular glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol 2010; 88: 103–109.
  91. Moraczewski AL, Lee RK, Palmberg PF, Rosenfeld PJ, Feuer WJ: Outcomes of treatment of neovascular glaucoma with intravitreal bevacizumab. Br J Ophthalmol 2009; 93: 589–593.
  92. Parodi MB, Friberg TR, Pedio M, Fiotti N, di Stefano G, Ravalico G: Panretinal photocoagulation and photodynamic therapy for anterior segment neovascularization secondary to ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 2007; 38: 94–99.
  93. Řehák J, Vymazal M: Kryotherapie zur Behandlung der neovascularen Glaukome mit verschlossenem Kamerwinkel. Klin. Mbl. Augenheilkd. 1994; 204: 20-23.
  94. Campochiaro PA, Heier JS, Feiner L, Gray S, Saroj N, Rundle AC, Murahashi WY, Rubio RG, BRA- VO Investigators: Ranibizumab for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion: six-month primary end point results of a phase III study. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 1102–1112. 95. Prager F, Michels S, Kriechbaum K, Georgopoulos
  95. M, Funk M, Geitzenauer W, Polak K, Schmidt-Erfurth UM: Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin(R)) for macular edema secondary to retinal vein occlusion – twelvemonth results of a prospective clinical trial. Br J Ophthalmol 2009; 93:452-456.
  96. Hoeh AE, Ach T, Schaal KB, Scheuerle AF, Dithmar S: Long- -term follow up of OCT guided bevacizumab treatment of macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2009; 47:1635-1641.
  97. Rensch F, Jonas JB, Spandau UH: Early Intravitreal Bevacizumab for Non-Ischaemic Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion. Ophthalmologica 2008; 223(2):124-127.
  98. Russo V, Barone A, Conte E, Prascina F, Stella A, Delle Noci N: Bevacizumab compared with macular laser grid photocoagulation for cystoid macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2009;29:511-515.
  99. Kriechbaum K, Michels S, Prager F et al.: Intravitreal Avastin for macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: a prospective study. Br J Ophthalmology 2008; 92(4):518-522.
  100. Wroblewski JJ, John JA, Gonzales CR: Pegaptanib sodium for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 2010; 149:147-154
  101. Gutman FA, Zegarra H, Zakov ZN: The natural course of temporal retinal vein.
  102. Trans. Amer Acad Opthalmol Otolaryngol 1974; 78: 178-192.
  103. Demeler U: Management of retinal venous occlusion. Opthalmologica (Basel) 1980; 180: 61-67.
  104. Magargal LE, Sanborn GE, Kimmel AS, Annesley WH: Temporal branch retinal vein obstruction: A review. Opthal Surg 1986; 17: 240-246.
  105. Finkelstein D: Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 1986; 93: 975-977.
  106. Finkelstein D: Ischemic macular edema: Recognition and favorable natural history in branch vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 1992; 110: 1427–1434.
  107. Rehak J, Rehak M: Branch retinal vein occlusion: pathogenesis, visual prognosis, and treatment modalities. Curr Eye Res 2008; 33: 111–131.
  108. Morse PH: Prospective rationale for and results of argon laser treatment of patients with branch retinal vein occlusion. Annals Ophthalmol 1985; 17: 565-571
  109. Noma H, Funatsu H, Yamasaki M. et al: Pathogenesis of macular edema with branch retinal vein occlusion and intraocular levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6. Am J Ophthalmol 2005; 140: 256-261.
  110. Rehák M, Hollborn M, Iandiev I, et al: Retinal gene expression and Müller cell responses after branch retinal vein occlusion in the rat. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2009; 50: 2359-2367.
  111. Goebel W, Kretzchmar-Gross T: Retinal thickness in diabetic retinopathy: a study using optical coherence tomography (OCT). Retina 2002; 22: 759–767.
  112. Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network: Relationship between optical coherence tomography-measured central retinal thickness and visual acuity in diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2007; 114: 525–536.
  113. Scott IU, Van Veldhuisen PC, Oden NL, Ip, MS, Blodi BA, Jumper JM, Figueroa M, SCORE Study Investigator Group: SCORE study report 1: baseline associations between central retinal thickness and visual acuity in patients with retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2009; 116: 504–512.
  114. Ota M, Tsujikawa A, Kita M, Miyamoto K, Sakamoto A, Yamaike N, Kotera Y, Yoshimura N: Integrity of foveal photoreceptor layer in central retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2008; 28: 1502–1508.
  115. L’Esperance FA: Ocular photocoagulation. A stereoscopic atlas. St.Louis, CV Mosby Company 1975;215-222.
  116. Jalkh AE, Avila PM, Zakka KA, Trempe CL, Schepens CL: Chronic macular edema in retinal branch vein occlusion: Role of laser photocoagulation. Annals Ophthalmol 1984; 16: 526-533.
  117. Řehák J: Venózní okluze sítnice: III. Perspektiva arteriolární konstrikce. Čs Oftalmol 1993; 49: 151-154.
  118. Erdöl H, Akyol N: Arterial crimping in branch retinal vein occlusion with macular edema. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2000; 78: 456–459.